Kant’s Categorical Imperative Essay Example for Free

Kant’s Categorical Imperative Essay This paper tackles the categorical imperative theory of Immanuel Kant as well as its first and second formulations and how they apply to a particular case of infidelity. Introduction In his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant defines an imperative as any proposition that declares a certain action or inaction to be necessary and practical (Kant, 1993, p. 413). The categorical imperative is a type of imperative which states what one ought to do under certain circumstances and it implies the moral requirement that we should act directly and unconditionally in order to achieve some end or purpose (p. 417). In the Groundwork, Kant distinguishes between the hypothetical imperative and the categorical imperative. The hypothetical imperative states that if one wants to do A, then he should do B, or he may choose not to do B or even A (p. 414). On the other hand, the categorical imperative requires that if one wants to do A, then he really ought to do B. It therefore follows that doing B is of an absolute necessity, is considered a moral duty, and is unconditional (p. 420). An Ethical Situation and the Action Taken The situation that is to be considered for the analysis is that of a young man who has a girlfriend and who once swore to love her and only her and not to cheat on her in whatever way especially by having flings with another girl. For many months he has kept this promise in order to make her happy and make the relationship work. However, one day this young man just happens to get to know one extremely beautiful young girl on Facebook, a girl who is more beautiful than his own girlfriend judging from the same standards. After a few secret exchanges of messages on the same social networking site, the young man meets up with her without telling anyone and they have a date that ended up in a sexual encounter. Evaluation of the Situation Based on the First Formulation For any imperative to be a categorical imperative or a true moral proposition, Kant proposes that this imperative should possess universality. This means that it must not concern itself with the particular physical details and circumstances surrounding the present situation, including the seemingly most pressing instinctual needs of the individual on which the ethical situation is focused. Kant therefore states that there is only one categorical imperative and it is this: â€Å"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law† (p. 421). In the situation, the young man clearly does not obey the categorical imperative when he decides to exchange messages with the girl on Facebook and later on meet up with her. If the young man made a promise of loyalty, then it is his moral duty to do so (p. 422). This means that if the notion of promising to be faithful to one’s lover and breaking it is universalized, then, based on the first formulation of the categorical imperative, there would be no promises at all and no such thing as honest oaths between lovers. The young man is therefore, according to Kant, never justified in the infidelity that he committed. Evaluation of the Situation Based on the Second Formulation Another characteristic of the categorical imperative is that it should not only be a principle but that it should also be an end in itself, unlike a hypothetical imperative on which many human moral decisions are based. Thus, if a hypothetical imperative goes like, â€Å"If you want to do A, you should do B,† the categorical imperative should go like, â€Å"Do B,† for doing B is an end in itself and not a means to any other end like A. Kant therefore states, â€Å"Act in such a way that you treat humanity†¦always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end† (p. 428). In our situation, the young man, based on the second formulation, has clearly violated the categorical imperative and this violation lies in the young man’s making an oath of faithfulness to his girlfriend in order to make her happy and to make the relationship work. According to the second formulation, if you have made a promise in order to make someone happy and to make the relationship work, then you are not acting out of moral duty; because if you are, then you will have made such a promise as an end in itself. The young man should have made the promise of loyalty just out of pure reverence for promise itself in exactly the same way as one decides to love not for the happiness of the other but for the sake of love itself. For Kant and the categorical imperative, true morality is doing one’s moral duty without concerning himself with the results (p. 417). The young man in the situation tried to concern himself with the results. Owing to this, his promise was therefore not purely made and such a fact may have even been the reason behind his subsequent immoral act. Conclusion Kant teaches us that an action is good and moral not because it is based on reason as what the rationalists contend nor because it has good results as what the utilitarians say, but that it is done in obedience to an inner sense of duty – the categorical imperative. According to this principle and based on the scenario presented, one should make a promise of love and keep it because the fulfillment of a promise is universal. One should also keep a promise of love not for any other reason such as the happiness of the other but for the sake of the promise itself, for true moral duty is self-sufficient and does not concern itself with results. References Kant, I. (1993). Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by James W. Elington. 3rd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. , 413-428.

Media and Public Perceptions of crime

Media and Public Perceptions of crime Crime stories and representations are, and have always been, a popular focus of the mass media. The percentage of media content that is constituted by crime images and stories obviously will depend on the definitions of crime used. A glimpse at the television guide, the movies listings in the cinema, or press headlines, will highlight both the interest the general population has in crime and criminals, and the key role the media play in describing all features of criminal behaviour. People are excited with crime and justice (Howitt, 1998). From films, books, newspapers, magazines, television broadcasts, to everyday talks, we are continuously participating in crime talk. A large amount of this crime will be fictional, others, real life, and our enthusiasm for reading and watching about both seems to be evident. Television documentaries, news programmes and local or national newspapers emphasise and discuss crime and criminal justice issues on an everyday basis. Stories about crime are a more limited proportion of news, varying according to medium (e.g. radio, television, or print journalism) and market (e.g. quality or popular journalism). In this chapter we will analyse how the media influence public opinion through social cognitive theory and information processing theory. The publics knowledge and understanding of crime, criminal justice, police forces and police investigations, is often derived from the media and is greatly based on what they have watched or heard through various media forms (Jewkes, 2011). More generally, it is not feasible for people to know everything about society through their own experience thus the media has the role of informing and entertaining people. It is important to say that several studies have found a correlation between people views about crime and the criminal justice system, and the media. Dorfman (2001) found that 76 percent of the public said they modulated their opinions about crime from what they see or read in the news compared to those who get their primary information on crime from personal experience at 22 percent. It is not surprising that the academic interest in the field of criminology and criminal justice is growing as studies showed the popular media and general public interest in this area has the hi ghest percentage (Jewkes ,2011). Heath and Gilbert (1996) initiated that the association among media productions and offence is contingent on the features of the communication and the viewers. Production of great amounts of neighbourhood offence news creates enlarged fear between the outsized public, (Brillon, 1987; Sheley and Ashkins, 1981) whilst the presentation of great sums of non-local offence news has the contradictory result by construction the local audience feel safer (Liska and Baccaglini, 1990). Also, Chiricos et al (2000) found out that local and nationwide news are connected to fear of felony. The result of neighbouring news on fear of crime is stronger for people in elevated offence locations and persons who have passed through victimisation. Public perspectives toward police are in general positive (Huang and Vaughn, 1996). Nevertheless, there are a small number of studies that considered the medias control on peoples ratings of police force efficiency. A large amoun t of the literature concentrates on media depictions of police officers and results expose two contradictory views. Some researchers suggest that the police are displayed positively in the media, whilst other study argues that the police are unenthusiastically portrayed in the media (Pollak and Kubrin, 2007). Police presentations are often over-dramatised and romanticised by imaginary television felony dramas while the news media display the police as daring, qualified crime fighters (Surette, 1998; Reiner, 1985). In television crime dramas, the mainstreams of crimes are solved and unlawful suspects are successfully detained (Dominick, 1973; Estep and MacDonald, 1984; Carlson, 1985; Kooistra et al. 1998, Zillman and Wakshlag, 1985). Likewise, news presentations have a tendency to overstate the percentage of crimes that consequence in catch which projects a representation that police are more successful than official statistics show (Sacco and Fair, 1988; Skogan and Maxfield, 1981; Marsh, 1991; Roshier, 1973). The sympathetic vision of policing is partially a result of a police forces people relations scheme. Coverage of practical police actions creates a representation of the police as effectual and well-organised investigators of crime (Christensen, Schmidt and Henderson, 1982). Therefor e, a constructive police display strengthens usual opinions to law and order that engage enlarged police attendance, cruel penalties and rising police power (Sacco, 1995). Modern offences-solving shows like CSI, Law Order and a range of spin-offs has obviously increased public cognition of the function that science can take part in solving crimes and gathering proof which may be used to help convict the criminals. Also, numerals of researchers suggest that a symbiotic association subsists among news media workers and the police. It is argued that the police and the media involve in a commonly advantageous connection (Jewkes, 2011). The media wants the police to give them with rapid, trustworthy sources of offence information, while the police have a vested attention in retaining a constructive public image (Ericson, Baranek, and Chan, 1987; Fishman, 1981; Hall et al, 1978). Nonetheless, other researchers suggest that the police are not displayed completely positive in the news media. For example, Surette (1998) argues that docu-dramas and news small programs symbolise the police as heroes that fight bad people, up till now publish and broadcast news exemplify the police as unproductive and useless. Likewise, Graber (1980) argues that the wide-ranging public appreciates police presentation more positively compared with judges and alteration. In English courtrooms media coverage and the use of m icrophones or videos are not allowed (Howitt, 1998). However, Graber (1980) suggests that the media gives tiny information to critic police and that the news media centre on unhelpful criticism rather than helpful or triumphant crime prevention exertions. Basically, most media crime is penalised, but policemen are infrequently the heroes (Lichter and Lichter, 1983). Research examining the agenda-setting function of the news media has undergone a dramatic re-conceptualisation in recent years. No longer is research based on the nation noted by Cohen that the press may not be successful in telling us what to think but is stunningly successful in telling us what to think about (Cohen, 1963, p.13). Indeed, researchers now argue that, under certain circumstances, the news media do tell people what to think by providing the public with an agenda of attributes a list of characteristics of important newsmakers. Individuals mentally link these mediated attributes to the newsmakers to a simila r degree in which the attributes are mentioned in the media (Marsh, Ian, Melville and Gaynor, 2008). The Social Cognitive Theory is also called social learning, observational learning, or Modelling. This theory has its roots in psychology. This communication theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. His idea was that people watch and learn by others, specifically they perform and imitate behaviours through observation by other people. In todays days increasingly media- society, the mass media communication becomes the basis of observational learning. In order to appropriately learn from the media a person must be exhibited to the media, then be able to encode and memorise the event, and finally be able to decode their view of the media into a suitable reply. This theory deals partly with media and how it affects behaviours. The modelling theory is mostly applied to the consequences of aggressive media on behaviour, but it can be applied to other variables like sex, pro social, or purchasing behaviour. Because of the powerful role the mass media get in the world, considera te the psychosocial mechanisms throughout representative communication effects human thought, affect, and action is of importance. Social cognitive theory provides an agentic conceptual framework in which to examine the decisive factors and mechanisms of such effects. Human behaviour has often been explicated in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behaviour is formed and forced either by ecological influences or by inside moods. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial operations in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). In this alternative view of self and society, individual factors in the figure of cognitive, affective, and biological events; behavioural patterns; and environmental events all function as interacting factors that influence each other (Bandura, 1986, 2001a). People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-determining, not just reactive organisms formed by ecological events or inside forces. Human self-development and al teration are enclosed in social systems. Furthermore, personal organisation functions within a wide system of socio-structural influences. In these agentic communications, people are producers and also products of societal regimes. Private group and social arrangement function as co determinants in an included causal structure rather than as an intangible duality. Seen from the socio-cognitive viewpoint, peoples nature is a huge capability that can be shaped by straight and observational experience into a range of shapes within natural limits. To say that a main distinctive mark of people is their exceptional elasticity is does not to mean that they have no character or that they appear structure- less (Midgley, 1978). The flexibility, which is inherent to the nature of humans, depends on neurophysiological mechanisms and structures that have developed over time. These higher neural systems specialised for dealing out, remaining, and employing coded information give the ability for the very abilities that are noticeably human-genital symbolisation, foresight, axiological self-arrangement, pensive self-consciousness, and symbolic message (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). Humans have developed a higher capability for observational learning that gives them the opportunity to enlarge their knowledge and skills quickly through information transferred by the rich range of models. Indeed, practically all behavioural, cognitive, and influencing learning from straight experience can be succeed representatively by observing peoples actions and its results for them (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal Zimmerman, 1978). A large amount of social learning derives either knowingly or unknowingly from models in ones direct surroundings. However, a large amount of information about people values, ways of thinking, and behaviour norms is acquired from the lengthy modelling in the symbolic setting of the mass media (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). The effects of media on the public can also be explained through information processing models which have been developed by cognitive psychologists (Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). Information-processing research suggests that people have cognitive constructions, called schemas, which organise peoples thinking (see chapter 2). A persons system of schemas stores independent faiths, attitudes, principles, and choices (Rokeach, 1973). The schemas are straight concentration to related information, driven its understanding and assessment, provide conclusions when information is absent or vague, and make easy its memory (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 173). Schemas do not select out all unknown or rough information, there are not filter of memory, they just help peoples mind to organise their thoughts. As Bennett (1981) argues, that information process, substantially fabricates parts of recognition and idealistic accusations and new Scholars have used many terms such as scripts, infere ntial sets, frames and prototypes to explain this situation. Information-processing theory identifies and assists clarify how stances derive from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples pre-existing beliefs. (Entman, 1989) The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus interferes with the implied model in much of the media research. People are vulnerable to considerable media effects, according to the information processing theory, despite of the autonomy model suggestions which support that people ignore the most new or dissonant media reports. In the information-processing viewpoint, a person first values a media report for salience. If salient, the person works out the news according to rotes established in the schema system. Processing may drive the person either to store the information or abandon it; if the information stored, people may adopt new beliefs or change old beliefs (Entman, 1989). Social Psychology and Media effects Social psychologists talk about conformity and they argue that people act as group and define things and form their opinions as group, as the majority do. It is possible that a person has a different opinion from the group but the influence that he or she receives is much more dynamic. Thus, people change their opinion about a subject to suit to groups opinion (Gross, 2010) People modify their opinion in response the information that they receive from others, also when people do not feel that they have the accurate perception about a subject they look to others to perceive the stimulus situation accurately. This is called informational social influence (Bordens and Horowitz, 2000) But sometimes people change perception in response to pressure to conform to a norm or in order to gain social approval and avoid rejection they agree with the group because of their power (Wren, 1999)

Dengue Fever and the Immune System

Dengue Fever and the Immune System Dengue virus cause variable range of dengue shock syndrome with fatal dengue varies from undifferentiated. Because of the increasing incidence and geographical distribution of dengue in the past 50 years, dengue has become increasingly recognized as one of the main infectious diseases in the world. This research will study the aspects of immune system and dengue. Also offers the importance of dengue virus infection and discusses the current knowledge of dengue fever. Dengue is a disease caused by a mosquito of dengue virus. In the last century, the dengue goes up in severity of illness and the geographical distribution is now the most common infections of human Arthropod-borne viruses in the subtropical and subtropical regions of the world. Dengue is endemic in more than 100 countries around the world. It causes nearly 50 to 100 million cases per year, including 250,000 to 500,000 dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome. World Health Organization reveal that the two fifth of world population is at a threat of dengue virus infection. It was stressed that globalization and climate change has a major impact on the emergence of dengue virus in new areas. Dengue is also a major economic burden on affected areas, with annual cost estimated at several billion dollars. Since there is no vaccine against dengue virus, is the primary means of preventing diseases targeting mosquito vectors and to break the cycle of transmission. This requires a large and well-organized, as well as financing of intervention programmes. Although there are programmes in countries affected, in Sri Lanka, which is currently in service in disease vector control strategies were not sufficient to combat dengue. New tools and novel approach are therefore urgently needed. The incubation period of dengue is around four days. A person about to reduce fever and to provide occasional macular or maculopapular rash. It was difficult to distinguish dengue viral diseases, person usually recovers 5 days. In the most serious cases, fever and rash are accompanied by headache, ritrorbital pain, myalgia, back pain, sore throat and abdominal pain. Becoming lethargic patients suffering from anorexia and nausea. The DHF as dengue hemorrhagic fever has similar incubation period and number same symptoms. However, the fever is more severe and the tiredness and lethargy more extreme. The patient may increase vascular permeability and abnormal balance. This can cause the individual to reduce the volume of blood, leading to low blood pressure and go in dengue shock syndrome (DSS) and die. Dengue virus infection continues to present a major and escalating global public health problem. Fight against vectors of the programs have been largely unsuccessful or local benefits in the short term only and therefore will continue to develop the vaccine is likely to be the most effective control strategy. Diseases of infection by the dengue and participation apparent protective immune response and disease has proven to be complex and difficult to understand and therefore required more research on these subjects. It is recognized that important steps to accelerate the dengue fever vaccine established an international network of centers for the clinical trial. Evaluation of vaccine experimentation is time-consuming and therefore you should not stop this process by theoretical considerations. Then only will be an initiative of the dengue vaccine in children in a position to assess the effectiveness of a variety of weapons to use in the fight against dengue. 1.0 Introduction Dengue fever is a disease caused by virus which is carried by mosquitoes. Then, these mosquitoes transmit the virus to humans. The virus that causes dengue fever has called an arbovirus, which is the short form for viruses transmitted by arthropods. Mosquitoes are arthropod type insects. Mosquitoes transmit this virus and responsible for passing it along to humans in a several areas. These countries include the Far East, Middle East, Africa, the Islands Caribbean and countries of Asia such as the India, Sri Lanka and the Thailand. In these areas, Arboviruses of dengue fever is widespread, which means that the virus naturally and repeatedly and repeatedly lives at those countries (1). To understand how the dengue fever is transmitted, several conditions must be defined. The meaning of the word host is an animal or human that can be affected with a particular disease. The meaning of the word vector is a body that can carry a particular virus causing agent such as a virus or bacteria with no actually develop the disease. The vector can then go by the virus or bacteria to a new host (2), (3). Most common diseases include the cold, many viral causes of diarrhea and flu or the influenza spread because the viruses that cause these diseases can be transmitted directly from one person to another. However, dengue fever cannot be transmitted directly from one person infected with another. The dengue virus must need an intermediate vector, a mosquito which takes the virus from one host to one more. The mosquito that takes the Arboviruses, reliable for dengue fever is the similar kind of mosquitoes that can transmit other diseases such as yellow fever. This mosquito is named as Aedes egypti. The more often victims are children less than 10 years (4). 2.0 Dengue Viral Infection When a person feeds by an infected mosquito, it injected dengue virus in the bloodstream. The virus infects close to skin cells called keratinocytes the most common type in skin cells. The dengue virus has also infected and reproduced within a specialized immune cell in the skin, a dendritic cell type called a Langerhans cell (5). Langerhans cells detect the pathogenic invaders and display molecules from the pathogens known as Antigen, on their surface. Langerhans cells then pass through to the lymph nodes and warn the immune system to prompt immune response as a pathogen inside the body. Lymph nodes are small organs that placed all the way through body, linked by vessels that form a set of connections named as lymphatic system (6). Lymph nodes are located in the body to help the fight against infection of immune cells. 3.0 The immune response When a pathogen as dengue virus invades the human body, the body to defend itself by defense of the body against pathogenic invaders is the immune system, which consists of two parts. First part is called as the innate immune system and it provides the body with urgent and regular defense to any pathogen that invading. The innate immune responses quickly identify and react against to pathogens. However it doesnà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t afford a person with immunity in the long term against an invasion of pathogens. Second part of the immune system called as the adaptive immune system generates cells that target more precisely and effectively towards pathogens and affected cells. The cells created by the Adaptive immune system consist of some B cells secreting antibodies and cytotoxic t cells. Immunoglobulin or Ig antibodies concealed by the cells B specially recognize and attach to foreign molecules. Cytotoxic T cells kill cells that are affected with pathogens. Adaptive immune system spends much time to react pathogens that invades the innate immune response (7), (8), but it is a person with immunity against a pathogen in long term. 4.0 Dengue Virus Tricks the immune system When the dengue virus infected mosquito bites the skin of the person, then the person also becomes a dengue infected. The dengue virus infects Langerhans cells, a type of dendritic cells in the skin. Infected cells of Langerhans produce interferons can help to limit the continued spread of the infection. Other infected cells to travel to the lymph nodes carrying viruses that infect more cells of Langerhans. Viremia is resulted by the spread of dengue virus when the high level of bloodstream affected. In order to fight against infection, the immune system construct antibodies to defuse the virus particles of dengue and the complement system is enabled for antibodies and white blood cells to get rid of virus. The immune response also consists of cytotoxic T cells also called as lymphocytes that identify and destroy infected cells. Langerhans cells once infected by dengue virus, they travel on the site of the infection of the skin to lymph nodes. The immune system responds to Infected Langerhans cells are viral antigens of dengue fever on their surface, which enables the innate immune response in alerting the two types of white blood cells called macrophages and monocytes that fight against the virus. In general, monocytes and macrophages consume and wipe out pathogens. But as an alternative of destroying the dengue virus, both of white blood cell types are pointed and infected from the virus. Dengue virus tricks the immune system to circumvent the protection and affect more cells (9). As the affected monocytes and macrophages to go through the lymphatic system, the dengue virus spreads all the way through the body. Throughout his trip, the dengue virus infects lots of cells, including lymph nodes and bone marrow macrophages of the spleen, liver and blood monocytes. Widening and the spread in the outcome of vir us Viremia is a situation in which there the bloodstream contains a high level of dengue virus. Mainly there are four different tensions of dengue virus. These strains are very similar, therefore the immune system recognizes all after seeing one. But the recognition is not protection. Each T cells of humans are automatically identified a specific model or an Antigen. In the first viral infection will be captured and processed by the above mentioned antigen presenting cells. These viruses will be open to T cells forcing them to become activated. And even the B cells will meet their floating free Antigen and make active. B cells create antibodies. They are used to tag the virus to encourage their uptake by macrophages called as opsonisation and inactivate them (10). The first infection is identified as dengue fever and lasted 6 or 7 days (11). Its symptoms closely look like as a severe flu. Most people get over it with no incident. If one person become affected from fever again things could leave in the wrong. Four types of dengue strains that all are extremely similar. If you are infected with a dissimilar strain that you met the first time, you contract dengue hemorrhagic fever. The reason for happening this is it turns out that the first infection antibodies attach to virus particles but not inactivate them. The strains are dissimilar enough to stay active in the existence of antibodies against another strain. These are called non neutralizing antibodies. These antibodies will always result in the opsonization if the Macrophages are readily transmittable virus. These speeds up the course on a point infection such as hemorrhagic symptoms are observed. It is one of those interesting times where our immune system not succeeds us. If people were vaccinated for dengue and if someone missed one out of those four vaccines has been inactivated by the improper storage, they would be very susceptible to dengue hemorrhagic fever. 5.0 Immune system Defeats the Dengue Virus Although the dengue virus has trapped immune system to infect cells and widen all the way through the body, the immune system contain further protection against the virus. Infected cells produce and release the tiny proteins named as interferons that are part of a huge collection of proteins named as cytokines. Interferons have the capability to interfere with viral replication and they activate the innate and adaptive immune defenses. They help the immune system recognizes cells infected by dengue and help protect cells not infected infection. The immune system, fight against dengue infection so the person will experience a fever (12). As the Adaptive immune response begins to fight against dengue infection, b cells produce antibodies IgM and IgG which are released into the blood and lymphatic fluid, where they specifically identify and deactivate dengue virus particles. In another immune response adaptation, killer T cells or cytotoxic T cells, recognize and kill cells infected with the dengue virus. Active innate immune response of the complement system, response that helps antibodies and white blood cells get rid of the virus. Together with the innate and adaptive immune responses defuse infection of dengue and the patient will recover from dengue (13). If there is a huge degree of virus in the bloodstream an infected person is experiencing acute dengue symptoms. As the immune response against infection by the dengue, personà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s B cells begin to create antibodies called IgM and IgG which are released into blood and the lymph fluid and then they identify and defuse the dengue virus and the viral such as dengue NS1 protein molecules (14). The immune response get rid of the virus and leading to recovery. 6.0 Secondary infections of Dengue After a dengue infection for the first time person is protected against infection with the three serotypes of dengue rest for several (2-3) months. Unfortunately, ità ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s not a long-term protection, and after this short time period, person can be affected with any of the three serotypes of dengue that are outstanding. Around 1960s, Dr Scott Halstead and some of his colleagues are studying in Thailand dengue virus (15), (16). They noticed that the people who had been infected to dengue virus second time had a bigger risk of severe dengue compared with who had not been infected previously. They were asking what makes a second infection of dengue, not as well as the first. In general after an infection from a pathogen, the body keeps in mind the infection for long because the cells named as memory B cells and memory T cells remain inside the body. Since they remember the first disease, memory cells can respond quickly to provide an adaptive response, when infection occurs for the second time. Memory cells can stay behind in the body for many years or even a lifetime. These memory cells help fight a second dengue infection. More often worse than the first infection second dengue infection. Halstead proposes a phenomenon called dependent improvement of antibodies to the infection to explain these observations. There are four types of dengue (serotypes), but the cells of memory do the immunity against reinfection by serotype of dengue fever that caused the first infection. When a person is infected with a second dengue serotype, Halstead suggested that antibodies to the first infection actually help spread of dengue virus infection and increase the amount of virus in the blood, Viremia. This phenomenon can also occur in children who received antibodies against dengue of their mother while in the uterus. Curiously, rather than destroy the virus, existing antibody and the antibody newly produced by the memory can of b cells actually help the virus infected host cells more effectively. Ironically, the consequence of dependent development of antibodies is the response of the immune system in fact makes the clinical symptoms of the dengue fever situation and raises the risk o f serious diseases of dengue. In a second dengue infection cytotoxic T produced by the immune system cells provide only partial immunity against the new serotype of dengue (17). Cytotoxic T cells are not responsible for effectively remove the virus from the body and they issue some excess amounts of molecules named as cytokines. In general quantities and cytokines help out the immune response. Though in large quantities, cytokines may produce severe inflammation and tissue such as capillary leak; eventually contribute to the development of serious diseases of dengue. 7.0 Factors That Contribute to Severe Dengue Infections Prevention of dengue fever means reducing the mosquito population. Any resources of standing water such as buckets, vases, etc. where the mosquitoes can breed must be eradicated. Mosquito repellant is suggested for those areas where dengue fever is widespread. To help break the cycle of spread, sick patients those who are suffered from the dengue fever must be placed in bed net, then the mosquitoes cannot bite them so that they wonà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t become arboviral vectors (18). Became the prevention and the fight against dengue, dengue hemorrhagic fever and urgent distribution of geographic expansion and increase the spread of the disease over the last 20 years. Unfortunately, the tools available to prevent dengue are very less. There is a no any vaccine invented yet, and the limited option available to fight against mosquitoes. Clearly, the emphasis should be on prevention of the disease, and if the trend emerging diseases must be reversed (19). If the effective prevention of the disease and several integrated components, including active laboratory surveillance and emergency response and medical community education to guarantee successful management of the situation, mosquitoes community integrated pest and use of effective vaccines when available Disease Control active is an important part of prevention program against dengue. In addition to monitoring secular trends, the purpose of monitoring should be to give warning or predictive capability for the transfer of the epidemic, and the reason is that if you cannot predict epidemics can be avoided by starting by fighting against mosquitoes emergency. For the prediction of epidemics, health authorities and should be able to precisely control the transfer of dengue virus in the community and be able to say at any time that the virus is transmitted virus serotypes rotation and related this kind of disease with dengue infection. To do this, the system must be on site. 8.0 Causes and symptoms Dengue fever can caused when a mosquito bites a human carrying the Arboviruses and transmit the virus to a new host. When the live virus inside body, it moves to various parts where it crashed. The virus is able to then go through the bloodstream. The existence of the virus within the blood vessels causes modifications to these blood vessels. The vessels enlarge and blood leak through the vessels. The spleen and lymph nodes become swollen. A procedure called disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) happens, where chemicals relevant for clotting are used up and it will guided to severe bleeding which is called as hemorrhage. When the virus has been spread to the human host, happens a period of incubation. During this time it last approximately five to eight days, the virus multiplies. The signs of the disease come out at once and consist of headache, high fever, chills, eye pain, lymph nodes swollen, red eyes, back pain, red hunting in the face, extreme weakness and severe pain in the limbs and joints (20). This early duration of the disease is about 2-3 days and after this duration, fever decreases rapidly, and the patient sweats strongly. After about a day to feel relatively well, the patient temperature increases again, but not as much as the first time. Begins a rash of small red bumps on arms and legs, spread to the chest and abdomen. It hardly ever affects the face. The palms and the soles of hands and feets swollen and turn bright red. The combination of characteristic of fever, rash and headaches are named as the dengue triad. Many people get well completely from dengue fever, even if the weakness and fatigue may last numerous weeks. When a person has been suffered by dengue fever, his immune system guards produce for about a year cells that prevent reinfection from dengue virus (21). More serious diseases can occur in some people. These persons may meet with dengue fever for the first time. Anyway, in some situations, that a person may have already had dengue recovered at a time and then is re-infected with the virus. In these cases, the infection first guides the immune system to identify the attendance of the Arboviruses. When the immune cells the virus infections later, the immune system reacts. These types of disease called dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS) (22), engage more strict symptoms. Fever and headache are the opening symptoms, but signs of dengue fever are not present. The patient improves a cough go after by the appearance of small purple patches named as petechiae on the skin. The petechiae are areas where the blood is leaking from the ships. Large areas bruises appear as the getting worse bleeding and abdominal pain can be strict. The patient may starts to vomit a material that is similar to coffee. It is actually a si gn of hemorrhage in the stomach (23). As the blood vessels turn into more injured, they escape more and carry on increasing in diameter called as dilation, causing a decrease in blood flow to the body tissues. This condition of reducing the blood flow is called as shock. Shock can cause damage to the organs of the body especially the heart and kidneys, because the low blood flow deprived oxygen (24). 9.0 Diagnosis Diagnosis should be detected in native areas each time that a high fever continues for 2-7 days, especially if go together with by a ability to hemorrhage. The signs of shock should suggest the development of the disease to the dengue. There are several types of Arboviruses but one of them causing dengue fever that can be isolated from the blood serum (25), (26). The serum is the fluid that the blood cells are floating. Serum can be verified because the phase in which the virus moves into the bloodstream is longer in DF than in other arbovirus diseases. Numerous tests are used to find reactions between the serum of the patient and antibodies produced in the laboratory. Antibodies are particular cells that identify the markers or antigens present on the attack of the body. During these tests, the antibodies are mixed with a sample of the patient serum. Health care workers and then looks for reactions that would occur only if the virus antigens are present in the serum (27). 10.0 New diagnostic technology In recent years, he has developed several new methods of diagnosis and has proved very useful in the diagnosis of dengue. After reviewing this issue in depth over the past. Here follows a brief description of the various methods below. 10.1 PCR Reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) was build up for numeral RNA viruses in recent years and possible to modernize laboratory diagnosis of dengue (28). RT-PCR provides a rapid diagnosis specific serum. This method is fast, simple, sensitive and reproducible if handled properly it can be used to discover viral RNA in human clinical specimens and autopsy tissues, or mosquitoes. There were number of methods developed involving primers genome in different places and different methods to detect RT-PCR products in recent years (29). 10.2 Immunohistochemistry A major problem in the laboratory diagnosis of dengue confirmation of fatal cases. Only one sample is obtained serum and serological tests of limited value. In addition, most patients die at the same time or shortly after defervescence as the virus isolation is difficult (30). With novel techniques of building, it is now possible to detect antigens of dengue viruses in a variety of tissues. 11.0 Treatment No treatments are available to reduce the course of dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome. Drugs to reduce fever and decrease muscle pain and headache pain (31). Fluids are given through a needle into a vein to prevent dewatering. Blood transfusion may be necessary if serious bleeding happens. Oxygen should be given to shocked patients (29). 12.0 Conclusion The immune system is the bodys defense against viruses dengue Home. When a person is infected with the dengue, response to innate and adaptive immune system to join forces to fight against the virus. B cells create antibodies which specifically identify and defuse foreign particles and viral cytotoxic T cells to recognize and destroy cells that are infected by the dengue virus. For people who can develop later with another type of dengue virus experience called antibody based on the promotion. This situation occurs when the immune response leads one clinical symptoms of dengue worse, which increases the risk of severe dengue.

Solutions to Global Warming Essay -- Environmental Global Climate Chan

Solutions to Global Warming Scientists report that global warming has been escalating since the Industrial Revolution. Governments are trying to reduce carbon-dioxide emissions. With the speed of destruction of Earth?fs ecosystem, the survival of many species, including human beings, is threatened. In order to solve this danger, we have to reduce the consumption of energy and use the alternative energy resources. If we calculate the present energy price, alternative energy must be more expensive than fossil fuels. However if we consider the negative price which is caused by global warming, this result might be different. Now I would like to propose some solutions: (1) reduce the use of fossil fuels; (2) find alternative energy resources; (3) recycle usable resources; (4) planting trees to help combat global warming. I will explain these solutions in more detail. (1) Reduce the use of fossil fuels Global warming is regarded as being a result of the greenhouse effect, which in turn is caused by carbon dioxide emissions. Petroleum and coal are major sources of carbon-dioxide emissions. What would happen if we conserved these energy sources? The volume of carbon-dioxide emissions surely would decrease. But how? In summer and winter, we use electricity to cool our houses or provide heat. Turn down the temperature in winter and turn up the temperature in summer. Do you drive? Why not use the existing public transportation? These subtle things will reduce the use of fossi...

Physics of Wormholes :: physics science wormhole wormholes

Science fiction will often have fantastic stories about humans traversing stars at great speeds, faster than light. Vast interstellar civilizations are maintained by fleets of starships that fly from world to world in a matter of days or weeks. The truth, sadly, is far less fantastic. The universal speed limit is the speed of light, or approximately 2.998x108 m/sec. Nothing can move faster than that constant. Even at that extreme speed, it would take approximately 4 years for any spaceship to reach the closest of other stars. To make matters even worse, the energy required to accelerate an object increases exponentially as it gets closer and closer to the speed of light to the point where we cannot input enough energy to make the object actually go the speed of light. So how can we have these great galaxy spanning civilizations and expand our frontiers beyond the boundaries of our solar system? One possible solution is wormholes. This web project will attempt to inform on some of the basic theories of wormholes and how they could be used to traverse great distances and possibly even time itself. History Einstein first proposed wormholes in 1935. He co-wrote a paper with Nathan Rosen in which they showed that general relativity allowed for what they called â€Å"bridges.† They theorized that there could be places where space/time is folded that allowed transfer of matter from one point to another in the universe. After this initial burst of ideas in the thirties, wormhole theory was pretty much dropped by the world of physics in general. It wasn’t until the 1980’s when Carl Sagan wished to write his book Contact was wormhole theory revisited. Sagan wanted to have his protagonist leave Earth and arrive at a distant star system in a relatively short amount of time without being completely scientifically invalid. He turned to his fellow physicist Kip Thorne to develop an at least somewhat scientifically appropriate method of faster-than-light space travel. Thorne came up with much of the modern framework for wormhole theory that is in existence today for the book, which is now a major motion picture starring Jodi Foster. Definition A wormhole is a tunnel in space that matter can traverse through. It works in four dimensions with time being the fourth. It connects two points in the universe. A useful analogy for how a wormhole works is a two-dimensional piece of paper with a pair of dots on it.

Huck Finn: Appearance Versus Reality

Many people in this world will believe in the first impression they get. The appearance people see will usually satisfy them without further investigating into the reality of a situation. The difference between appearance and reality can be quite different. This also applies to literature. There are many instances where an author will describes a character as kind, but is actually deceptive and mean. In the novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, there are characters and situations that show how appearances can differ from reality.The three main instances are the Grangerford and Shepherdson feud, through the Duke and the Dauphin, and Miss Watson. The difference between appearance and reality is easily seen through the Grangerford and Shepherdson feud. They are two families who appear to be very classy. Huck believes them to be noble families. Huck shows that he believes this when he says, â€Å"There was another clan of aristocracy around there – five or six families â€⠀œ mostly by the name of Shepherdson. They was as high-toned and well born and rich and grand as the tribe of Grangerfords† (142).The two families show that this is not how they really are when they shoot at each other and try to kill one another. Col. Grangerford is also a man who is not who he appears to be. He is the head of the Grangerford family and in Huck’s eyes, is the perfect man. Huck says, â€Å"COL. Grangerford was a gentleman, you see. He was a gentleman all over; and so was his family† (140). Huck sees a man who is kind and perfect. The reality is that Col. Grangerford allows for the continuing slaughter of two families over a feud they don’t even remember how it started. Col. Grangerford is actually the exact opposite of the person he appears to be.The Grangerford faTmily is overall not who they seem to be. They appear to be kind and thoughtful, yet they partake in the owning of slaves. Huck finds out that the Grangerford family owns many fa rms with over a hundred slaves. The Grangerford’s could not possibly be good people and treat hundreds of people with disdain. The Grangerford and Shepherdson families are perfect examples of people are not who are not who they appear to be. The Duke and the Dauphin are two men who fake their appearance for a living. As con-men, they rely on people to believe in their appearance.The episode of the Royal Nonesuch illustrates how the Duke and the Dauphin swindle people. They put up posters around the town stating that there would be a performance of the Royal Nonesuch for three nights. The tricksters’ plan was to charge the villagers to get in to the performance, and then the Dauphin would cut the performance extremely short. They achieved this and made a large sum of money. They also use their ability to fake their appearance to gain special treatment from people. This was seen when the Duke said, â€Å"I will reveal it to you, for I feel I may have confidence in you. By rights I am a duke† (163)!The Dauphin quickly followed the Duke’s lead and said, â€Å"You ain’t the only person that’s ben snaked down wrongfully out’n a high place/ Bilgewater (the duke), I am the late Dauphin† (164/165)! By claiming that they are people of high stature Huck and Jim believe that they should be treated like royalty. However, Huck was smart enough to be able to identify the men as fakes and see past their appearance. That prevented Huck from completely following the men as a servant. The Duke and the Dauphin also show that if we just accept people for whom they appear to be, we could get hurt. The episode with the inheritance claim is an example of this.The family believed the Duke and Dauphin to be the uncles of the Wilks nieces and therefore claim the six thousand dollars. People such as the Duke and the Dauphin use people’s compellation to believe in appearances to survive. Not everyone takes advantage of peopleà ¢â‚¬â„¢s awareness toward others; some, like Miss Watson, are actually better people than their appearance dictates. In the beginning of the book Huck talks about Miss Watson in a quick description. Huck said, â€Å"The Widow’s sister, Miss Watson, a tolerable slim old maid, with goggles on, had just come to live with her, and took a set at me now with a spelling-book.She worked me middling hard for about an hour, and then the widow made her ease up† (3). Miss Watson appears tough and severe to Huck, employing harsher methods than necessary at times. From Huck’s point of view she does appear like a mean old women, but she most likely had her reasons for using the methods she did. Huck was most likely not the best student and his behavior skills were sub-par. It is easy to see how Miss Watson became frustrated with Huck’s struggle to be civilized. The underlying concept behind her strictness is that she cares for Huck.There has to be a reason for her to us e up so much energy to try and teach a boy without any previous knowledge. Huck does not realize that Miss Watson actually cared for him until his conscience starts bothering him about Jim. His conscience was theoretically incorrect because he was upset that he had taken Jim from Miss Watson, but he understood why Miss Watson acted the way she did in the beginning of the novel. Huck realized this when he said, â€Å"Why, she tried to learn you your book, she tried to learn you your manners, she tried to be good to you every way she knowed how.That’s what she done† (118). Miss Watson is an example of someone who is better in reality than who she appeared to be. The appearance of something whether it is an object or a person, is not always what is true. The true reality behind something or someone may be completely different than what seemed. Some people take advantage of people who commit to a first impression. Others are actually better people than what their appearanc e dictates. Looking into this topic, I realized that applying the concept used in understanding literature can also be used in life.The skill of being able to understand who a character is and why they do the things they do instead of just accepting how they appear can translate into real situations. We can do this by looking at situations through another’s point of view; or commonly said, putting yourself into another’s shoes. Gaining a deeper understanding of someone’s actions and beliefs can help us rise above the level of just tolerance. When we gain this understanding, we reach a level of acceptance. You can always have facts bolstered by imagination, but you can never imagine facts.

Nutrition study worksheet

The topic I chose was eggs. The article (Marcela, 2011)feels organic eggs don't cause heart disease. The hens are feed vegetables and no vaccines or hormones that have made the eggs unhealthy. For Example: The hens are able to run free without being in a tight space with the other hens. Another example: Claims are made when you cook eggs the protein in the egg helps to lower your blood pressure instead of raising it.Organic eggs are one of the best foods a person can eat to stay lately (Marcela, 2011). 2. What health claims are stated in the articles, such as drinking coffee every day will lower one's risk for cancer? The health claims in article is Organic eggs are suppose to have less cholesterol, h less saturated fat 2/3 more vitamin A,E and seven times more carotene (Marcela, 2011). They are a good source of nutrients. The other article say eaten eggs will not extended your life on earth it will decrease it (Greer, 2011). 3.Do any of the articles' claims seem too good to be true? Does it seem that the authors are seeking personal gain in any way? Explain your answers. The article that seems too good to be true is the article on another reason to ignore warnings about eggs. I believe this person who wrote the article eats eggs and don't want to really believe the risk involved with eating eggs at all. I also believe the person who wrote the article may benefit from stating these claims. The article I feel seem to be true is (Greer, 2011)article on bad eggs.I do also believe the person who wrote this article is a vegan who doesn't like any type of eggs or dairy products and is against hens living together in such a small place. I also believe he may feel they all come from the same place. I feel it may be true because I do believe your cholesterol levels will go up high no matter what eggs you eat. I believe eggs could have salmonella poisoning in it and kill a lot of people as well as have people develop diabetes from eating eggs everyday. I don't believe th ey are a good source of proteins at all. . What are the respective sources of these articles (testimonials, peer-reviewed study)? Studies was done and 77% of women and 58% men eating one egg a day increase their chances of developing type 2 diabetes including premature death and earth failure (Greer, 2011) Studies also show eggs has nothing to do with raising a person's cholesterol levels even thou egg yolks will raise your cholesterol levels. They are also a rich source of antioxidants which helps to prevent blindness (Marcela, 2011). 5. 6.Is the information presented in each article new or has it been studied extensively over time, achieving the same results? Both articles have been studied overtime achieving the same results this moment but both have different opinions on eggs. Department of agriculture there was a 2009 study done on eggs and how they are a DOD source of vocative peptides. In 2005 research showed how people eating eggs everyday did not increase their risk of havi ng a heart attack and their cholesterol level did not increase. . Now that you have gone through the details of each article, do you have any reservations about the information in either one? If so, explain why. Has the process of analyzing the two articles changed your opinion on the topic? Explain your answer. Yes after analyzing the articles my opinion on eggs is very different. I use to think eggs were good for you. I am now convinced no eggs are good for you at all to eat. Your chances of living longer on earth can be shortened.I believe I was blinded by the commercials all my life on how eggs are nutritious for you but if you look at it they always say fresh eggs not healthy on commercials.